The sixth century B.C was a time of turmoil, of political and social transformations in India. It was during this period that Vardhaman Mahavira (599 B.C-527 B.C) founded Jainism while Gautama the Buddha (560 B.C- 480 B.C) propounded Buddhism.
These religions, preached non-violence towards all living creatures, tolerance and self-discipline. In the centuries that followed, the Buddhist monk-missionaries and monks spread their religion to other Asian countries including Sri Lanka China, Japan, Korea, to name a few,where it is practiced till today.
With land becoming property and society being divided on the basis of occupations and castes, conflicts and disorders were bound to arise. Organized power to resolve these issues therefore emerged, gradually leading to the formation of full-fledged state systems, growing into mighty empires.
By the end of the third century B.C, most parts of Northern India were knit together into an empire by Chandragupta Maurya (ruled between 322-298 B.C.).
In 327 B.C, Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), of Macedonia (modern Greece) crossed into northwest India. He conquered a large part of the Indian territory before his disgruntled generals, tired of war, forced him to return home. Alexander left behind Greek governors to rule over Indian territories won by him. These regions gradually got merged with the Indian states owing to wars and political upheavals.
However, the contact between the two cultures left an indelible impact on Indian art. The legendary Gandhara School of Art flourished in the Gandhara region (modern Afghanistan). It was the hallmark of Indo-Greek fusion art.
Chandragupta’s son Bindusara (ruled between 298-272 B.C) further extended the Mauryan empire over the entire subcontinent. The greatest Mauryan emperor was Ashoka the Great ( 286 B.C-231 B.C) the watershed of whose political career was the gory, gruesome war of Kalinga (modern Orissa).
Overcome by the horrors unleashed by this war, he renounced weapons and violence forever. He became a Buddhist and zealously propagated and promoted the faith without any violence and coercion. He got his messages engraved on rocks and tablets using the local dialects and Brahmi a post-Harappan script.
Following Ashoka's death in 232 BC, the Mauryan empire began to disintegrate. This situation encouraged invaders from Central Asia to enter India in quest of power and fortune. As a result, several small kingdoms came into being, which soon passed into oblivion.
After the gap of a few centuries another mighty empire which arose, was the Gupta empire in the 4th century A.D. In fact this period is considered the golden age of Indian history. This empire lasted for more than two centuries, spanning a large part of the Indian subcontinent, with its administration much more decentralized than that of the Mauryas. By means of wars and matrimonial alliances with the smaller, neighbouring kingdoms, the empire's boundaries kept getting extended further.
The Gupta rulers patronized Hinduism which led to the resurgence of orthodox Hinduism. A famous Chinese traveler, Fa Hien, visited India during this period and recorded his experiences in the form of interesting chronicles. The world famous treasure troves of art namely Ajanta and Ellora caves were created during this period.
The Gupta period witnessed the revival of literature and culture. Several important treatises were written on a vast range of subjects-grammar, mathematics, astronomy medicine and erotica (The Kamasutra).The luminaries of this period include Kalidasa the famous playwright who created master pieces in Sanskrit,Varahamihira (505 AD - 587 AD), a famous astronomer and Aryabhatta (476 AD-550 AD), the renowned mathematician and astronomer.
At the fag end of the Gupta period, there arose what maybe hailed as the last empire in northern India.Harshavardhan (590–647A.D) had inherited a small state in the upper Ganges valley in the year 606A.D. But by the year 612 AD he had built up a vast army with which he forged nearly the entire territory lying north of the river Narmada into an empire, which he ruled efficiently, for almost 42 years. He was an outstanding military leader, who tasted defeat only once in his lifetime, at the hands of the Chalukya king Pulakesin II when he attempted to invade the Deccan in the year 620 A.D.
Harsha’s capital, Kannauj (modern Uttar Pradesh) was a flourishing centre of art and literature. Harsha himself was a distinguished poet and dramatist. He is well-known for two dramatic compositions Ratnavali and Naganada, written in Sanskrit
Born a Hindu, Harsha later became a devout Buddhist and forbade the killing of animals in his kingdom.His contribution to the society at large, include a number of stupas, monasteries, and several state hospitals to offer health services to the general public. The great Buddhist Convention, organised by Harsha at Kannauj in the year 643 A.D turned out to be a grand event, reportedly attended by 20 kings and thousands of pilgrims from all over the country. The life and times of Harsha are described in the Harsha-Charita, a brilliant literary work by Bana Bhatta, the former’s court poet, and in the Si-yu-ki (Records of the Western world) written by the Chinese scholar- pilgrim, Hiuen-Tsang.
After Harsha's death, the entire northern India once again plunged into anarchy and chaos, after nearly four decades of peace and stability.
The invasions of the Huns (nomadic herdsmen, war-like people from the grasslands of Mongolia who terrorized, ransacked and destroyed much of Asia and Europe between the 3rd and 5th centuries A.D) from the west, signalled the end of this glorious chapter of history, although initially they were defeated by the Guptas. After the decline of the Gupta empire, north India got fragmented into a number of petty kingdoms ruled by Hindu kings. The next wave of unification came only with the Muslims invasions.
Clothing, Make Up and Jewelry of Ancient India
Ancient Indian garments generally used no stitching, even though Indians did have needles and knew about sewing. Most clothes were ready for wear as soon as they left the loom. The Dhoti, the Scarf or Uttariya, and the Turban, have never really disappeared from any part of India. Likewise, for women, the Dhoti or the Sari as the lower garments, combined with a Stanapatta or breast-band for covering the breasts, forms a basic ensemble, and once again consists of garments that do not have to be stitched, the breast-garment being simply fastened in a knot at the back. And the Dhoti or the Sari worn covering both legs at the same time or, in the alternative, with one end of it passed between the legs and tucked at the back in the fashion that is still prevalent in large area of India. Indian men and women for these garments in the usually hot Indian climate. - dhoti when he speaks of 'turbans used for trousers', and a kaupina when he is speaking of 'a rag of two fingers' breadth bound over the loins.
Saris with many images of the famous drape. This researcher found about 100 different styles of drape - (Chantal Boulanger: Indian saris - research) See her Illustrated guide to the Indian Art of Draping - especially part 2 which has Families of Saris - and click on the links to see photographs of the many types of saris. Also see her Pictures of India
From Mystica site:
Adornments - 16 traditional adornments
Bindi (dot on forehead) Traditionally a symbol of marriage (vivaha), but now worn by unmarried women.
Ornaments or jewelry -
Both men and women wore ornaments
Gold ornaments are popular because the metal is believed to have the power purify anything it touches. Ornaments of gold and other metals, often combined with precious and semi-precious gems and beads, are popular with both men and women. Most ornaments are common across India, with variations in designs and material depending upon caste, religion, and geography. Gold is the most popular metal because it is believed to have the power to purify whatever it touches. For this reason, some gold ornament is usually worn against the skin at all times. Today ornaments are more popular with women than men, though, as paintings and sculptures attest men were once lavishly adorned too. In fact, the use of ornaments in India dates back to the ancient civilisations at Harrapa and Mohenjodaro. (See pictures of ancient gold and agate ornaments, bangles and rings, and a belt and a necklace and beaded hair ornaments worn by a man of Harrapa.)
Traditionally, ornaments had economic significance for women. The ornaments given to her at her wedding constituted a daughter's inheritance from her father. Customarily land and other property was divided among the sons, though this no longer holds true. In addition, a bride's ornaments were financial security throughout her life.
Nose pin: More common than a nose ring, both are symbols of purity and marriage, though today many unmarried girls wear this adornment.
Necklace: These are popular across the country among girls and women of all ages. Necklaces are made of a variety of materials, ranging from glass beads to gold and diamonds. One special necklace, however, is the mangalasutra, worn only by married women. It is the Indian equivalent of the western wedding ring. Traditionally a woman wore it during her wedding ceremony and took it off only if her husband died.
[Image of the mangalasutra.]
Bangles: Worn on the wrist, bangles are believed to be protective bands and women always wore them as symbolic guards over their husbands. As with other ornaments, bangles today are worn by women of all ages all over India and are made of silver, gold, wood, glass, and plastic, among other materials.
Ear rings: Rings, studs and other ornaments worn in the ears are popular all over the country. In fact, a girl's ears are usually pierced before her first birthday.
Other important ornaments are finger rings, toe rings and anklets. Rings for the fingers are again, of various materials and designs and worn by unmarried and married women. Since
the ring has become a common adornment, it is no longer considered a symbol of marriage
However, toe rings and anklets are still worn mostly by married women. Ornaments for the feet are usually made of silver because gold, being a 'pure' metal, was not supposed to be
worn on the feet. This privilege was given only to women of royal families.
In addition to these ornaments is the 'mangatika' or 'tikli'. This ornament, worn at the top of the forehead in the parting of the hair, is usually a small pendant on the end of a chain
that is clasped to the hair. Although traditionally this ornament was also worn as a symbol of marriage, today it is not so commonly worn even by married women.
Mehendi -
Flowers - Showering petals is also a form of blessing, as at the end of the ceremony, when all those present shower the Flowers bride and groom with petals. In the southern part of India, an important part of a woman's toilette is flowers in her hair.
Flowers are considered symbolic of life and happiness and are therefore an important aspect of any worship.
Eye make-up (kohl?) eyeliner From the time a child is six days old, its mother applies kajal to its eyes and also a small black dot on the forehead to mar the child's beauty. This 'imperfection' is said to protect from evil.
Sindoora - dot on forehead of woman indicating married status, power, protection for her husband. It is applied by the husband as part of wedding ceremony.
